The State of Bangladesh Digital Economy

Executive Summary

Bangladesh's digital transformation stands at a pivotal inflection point. Internet penetration at 53.4% is approaching regional parity, while mobile subscriptions at 108.1 per 100 people suggest near-universal network access. Yet fixed broadband at 8.09 per 100 people, one-tenth of Vietnam's level, reveals the infrastructure gap between basic mobile connectivity and the high-quality access required for productive digital participation. The digital readiness score of 55.8/100 is moderate, with strong e-governance foundations but persistent gaps in broadband, digital literacy, and innovation capacity. Two achievements stand out globally: the mobile financial services ecosystem with 238,600,000 registered accounts processing BDT 17,370 billion annually, and the e-governance network of 8,280 Union Digital Centers delivering 600,000,000 cumulative services. The transition from "Digital Bangladesh" to "Smart Bangladesh 2041" demands addressing the binding constraints of broadband infrastructure, digital literacy at 40.0%, R&D spending at 0.300% of GDP, and the absence of data governance and cybersecurity frameworks.

Connectivity and Digital Access

Bangladesh's connectivity landscape is defined by a fundamental paradox: near-universal mobile network coverage coexists with some of the lowest meaningful internet participation rates in Asia. 4G LTE coverage reaches 97.0% of the population through four mobile operators (Grameenphone, Robi, Banglalink, Teletalk), and 5G spectrum has been allocated with trial deployments underway. Yet internet penetration at 53.4% places Bangladesh behind India (approximately 52%), Vietnam (79%), and the Philippines (68%).

The binding constraints are not network availability but affordability, digital literacy, and demand-side readiness. A 1GB mobile data plan costs approximately 1.2% of monthly GNI per capita, exceeding the ITU affordability threshold for low-income households. An estimated 40-45% of mobile connections remain on 2G networks used primarily for voice and USSD-based financial services. Smartphone penetration is approximately 45-50% of the adult population, meaning roughly half of mobile subscribers lack the hardware for app-based services.

Fixed broadband at 8.09 per 100 people is the most severe infrastructure deficit. This is roughly one-tenth of Vietnam's 21 per 100 and one-fifth of India's level. Broadband infrastructure remains concentrated in Dhaka, Chittagong, and divisional cities, with rural areas served primarily by mobile data connections that cannot support cloud computing, video conferencing, or enterprise IT services. The digital divide metric of 100.0 (mobile minus broadband per 100) quantifies this access chasm. The urban-rural gap in internet access exceeds 30 percentage points, and the gender gap in internet use is approximately 20 percentage points, meaning women in rural Bangladesh have the lowest digital participation rate of any demographic segment.

E-Governance and Digital Public Infrastructure

Bangladesh's e-governance achievements under the a2i (Access to Information) programme represent one of the most successful digital government initiatives in South Asia. The network of 8,280 Union Digital Centers, established in every union parishad (the lowest tier of local government), provides government services to rural populations that would otherwise require travel to district or divisional headquarters. Over 600,000,000 services have been delivered cumulatively, including birth and death registration, land records, educational certificates, and agricultural advisory services.

The National ID system has enrolled 110,000,000 citizens (63.4% of the population) in a biometric database that serves as the foundation for financial account verification, SIM registration, and government benefit distribution. The e-Government Procurement (e-GP) system has achieved 100% adoption across public procurement, improving transparency and reducing opportunities for corruption in contract awards. Over 7,000 e-service portals are operational across government agencies.

However, the gap between digital government aspiration and implementation remains wide. Government systems operate in silos with minimal interoperability: a citizen's National ID, tax identification, land records, health records, and social protection entitlements exist in separate databases that do not communicate. India's India Stack (Aadhaar + UPI + DigiLocker + e-Sign) demonstrates what integrated digital public infrastructure can achieve; Bangladesh has the components but not the integration layer. Land records digitization, while progressing, remains incomplete and is one of the most significant sources of litigation and corruption. Blockchain-based land records pilots have been initiated but not scaled.

Mobile Financial Services Revolution

If Bangladesh's digital economy has a singular global-class achievement, it is the mobile financial services revolution. bKash (launched 2011, BRAC Bank subsidiary) and Nagad (launched 2019, Bangladesh Post Office) have collectively registered 238,600,000 accounts with 90,000,000 monthly active users. The system processes BDT 17,370 billion in annual transaction value, a figure exceeding the formal banking sector's retail payment volume. MFS penetration at 137.5% of the population is among the highest in the world.

The financial inclusion impact has been transformative. Populations entirely unbanked a decade ago now routinely send domestic remittances, pay utility bills, receive government social protection payments, and conduct commercial transactions through mobile phones. Domestic remittance costs fell from 5-10% through informal hundi channels to under 2% via MFS. During COVID-19, MFS platforms disbursed emergency cash transfers to 5 million vulnerable households, demonstrating scalability and resilience.

The comparison with Kenya's M-Pesa is instructive but incomplete. Bangladesh's MFS ecosystem developed in a more competitive multi-operator market and is more deeply integrated with formal banking through Bangladesh Bank regulatory oversight. The critical challenge is maturation: person-to-person transfers and cash-in/cash-out still dominate (~70% of volume). Merchant payments, digital lending, savings products, and insurance remain underdeveloped. The absence of a unified QR code standard constrains merchant adoption. Interoperability between platforms is limited. India's Unified Payments Interface (UPI), which processes over 10 billion transactions monthly through an interoperable, bank-agnostic platform, represents the frontier that Bangladesh's MFS ecosystem has not yet reached.

Digital commerce at $3.0 billion is growing but remains small relative to India ($75B) and Indonesia ($50B). The ecosystem is fragmented among platforms (Daraz, Chaldal, Pathao, Foodpanda) without the logistics and payments infrastructure needed for mass adoption outside Dhaka.

ICT Sector, Freelancing, and Digital Commerce

ICT service exports at 9.5% of total service exports (approximately $1.5 billion annually) represent the most promising non-RMG export diversification pathway. ICT goods exports at 0.05% remain negligible, reflecting absent hardware manufacturing capacity.

The freelancing economy is the sector's most visible success. With 650,000 registered freelancers on global platforms, Bangladesh ranks second only to India in freelance workforce volume, earning an estimated $500M-$1B annually. However, freelancing is atomized and low-margin. The transition to institutional IT services, the path India followed through TCS, Infosys, and Wipro, has not occurred. The formal IT sector remains fragmented among small firms, most with fewer than 50 employees.

The startup ecosystem of approximately 1,200 companies is nascent. Venture capital availability is limited, intellectual property protections are weak, and the regulatory environment for digital business formation is cumbersome. Bangabandhu Hi-Tech City and software technology parks provide some infrastructure but lack the ecosystem density of Bangalore or Ho Chi Minh City.

R&D expenditure at 0.300% of GDP is among the lowest in Asia (India: 0.7%, Vietnam: 0.5%, South Korea: 4.9%). This innovation deficit means Bangladesh absorbs but does not generate digital technology, creating dependency on imported solutions and limiting the country's capacity to develop proprietary products in Bengali language NLP, RMG supply chain digitization, or fintech for emerging markets.

Smart Bangladesh 2041: Gaps and Risks

The transition from Digital Bangladesh to Smart Bangladesh 2041, built on four pillars (smart citizens, smart economy, smart government, smart society), faces structural gaps that aspirational targets alone cannot bridge.

Digital literacy at 40.0% means the majority of citizens cannot independently navigate online services. This is not a gap that standalone training programmes can close; it requires systemic integration into the education curriculum from primary school.

Cybersecurity remains critically underdeveloped. The 2016 Bangladesh Bank heist ($81 million stolen through SWIFT network exploitation) exposed vulnerabilities that have not been comprehensively addressed. As MFS transactions exceed BDT 17,370 billion annually and government services move online, the attack surface expands dramatically without commensurate defensive capability.

Bangladesh lacks a comprehensive data protection law. Personal data collected by MFS platforms, e-commerce companies, government agencies, and telecom operators operates without adequate legal safeguards. The Digital Security Act of 2018, intended to address cybercrime, has been criticized for provisions criminalizing legitimate speech.

AI policy is nascent. No regulatory framework exists for AI deployment in government services, financial products, or autonomous systems. The risk is that Bangladesh becomes a passive consumer of AI technologies developed elsewhere, without the governance structures to manage algorithmic bias, data privacy, or labour displacement impacts.

Policy Recommendations

• Build national broadband infrastructure through a public-private broadband mission: Invest in fiber-to-the-home and fiber-to-the-tower through PPPs with binding rural deployment targets and universal service obligations funded by spectrum auction levies. Vietnam's model, using state-owned telecom as deployment anchor supplemented by private investment, offers a relevant template. Target: 25 broadband subscriptions per 100 people by 2030, from the current 8.09.
• Create an integrated digital public infrastructure stack: Build an interoperability layer connecting National ID, tax records, land registry, health records, and social protection databases into a unified digital identity and service delivery platform, modeled on India's India Stack. Mandate open APIs for government systems and implement a unified QR code standard for MFS merchant payments. This is the prerequisite for converting 7,000 fragmented e-service portals into a coherent digital government experience.
• Enact a data protection law and establish a cybersecurity agency: Pass comprehensive data protection legislation governing collection, processing, and cross-border transfer of personal data by both private and public actors. Establish a National Cybersecurity Agency with adequate staffing, budget, and authority to set mandatory critical infrastructure protection standards, conduct incident response, and coordinate with international CERT networks. The annual cost is modest relative to the $81 million lost in a single cyber incident.

Data sources: World Bank Development Indicators, ITU ICT Statistics, BTRC, Bangladesh Bank MFS data, a2i Programme, BASIS, GSMA Mobile Economy reports, CPTU e-GP statistics.